The gap between the elite and the poor was a major factor behind the Chinese immigration to America. (photo credit: Ralph Repo)

Abstract

Chinese immigration to America in the early 1800′s was driven by internal and external forces that devastated China. Internal factors for the Chinese immigration were rapid population growth in China, environmental problems such as flooding and droughts, and famines. Four major famines in the 1800′s are thought to have taken some 45 million lives – an obvious factor behind the waves of Chinese immigration to America.

External factors were also problematic. Britain’s Opium Wars forced China open to the opium trade. The opium trade wreaked havoc on China’s balance of payments and labor force. The Chinese government’s inability to protect China provided the seeds for internal dissent that turned into rebellions and civil war that ultimately would topple the Qing Dynasty. Deaths from these rebellions exceeded 30 million and provided another driving force that lead to Chinese immigration to America.

In some respects, America’s subtle support for the Opium Wars contributed to the ‘push’ of Chinese out of China. A developing West Coast in need of laborers functioned as a ‘pulling’ force for Chinese immigration. Oddly enough, America would find itself having to create barriers to the large wave of Chinese immigration that occurred as a result of its actions.

– Grayspirit’s Abstract/Commentary

Introduction

Chinese immigration to America began in the early 1800′s. Today, Asian Americans make up slightly more than four percent of the country’s population and the largest Asian group is the Chinese. In the 1800′s China experienced a major period of unrest that caused large numbers of Chinese to leave China for life in other countries. The reasons for this Chinese Diaspora are many, but the experience of the Chinese around the world has often been the same.

Often, it has been fraught with many challenges and a perception of threat from the demographic and sometimes social changes brought about by the Chinese immigrants. The period of Chinese immigration to America in the 1800’s benefited the country in many ways, but also provoked fear of a ‘yellow peril’ and created many conflicts in those parts of the country where substantial numbers of Chinese had settled.

By the late 1800′s America closed the doors to Chinese immigration with the Chinese Exclusion Act. The legislation was a response to the growing anti-Chinese violence in America’s West. That legislation would be only one of a number of anti-Chinese laws in America.

Population Growth in China

Chinese Immigration to America: Rapid Population Growth in China

One of the major causes of Chinese immigration to America was China’s population growth. By the mid-1800’s, China’s population had exploded to nearly 450 million people – three times the population that existed in the 1500’s. That growth placed severe pressures on the country’s environment. The results were what Thomas Malthus would have predicted.

The increased population exerted increased pressures on the Chinese environment. The environment became more vulnerable to natural hazards such as flooding, due to an increase in land under cultivation, cultivation of more marginal lands and deforestation of the countryside. In turn, although it is likely that food production was increasing, it was doing so on more marginal land vulnerable to flooding, droughts, and other types of natural hazards – and not keeping pace with the population growth.

Rapid population growth is also likely to have contributed to a growing labor surplus. More people are likely to have been unemployed or marginally employed. In times when natural hazards struck, these are likely to have been the ones most adversely affected. In the 1800’s, natural hazards contributed to at least four major famines (1810, 1811, 1846, 1849) that are estimated to have resulted in about 45 million deaths. These famines and labor surplus are a major reason for the Chinese immigration to America and other parts of the world in the 1800′s.

External Forces Causing Political Instability in China

Chinese Immigration to America: Political Instability from External Forces

One of the reasons for the Chinese immigration to America was the growing political instability within China as a result of the West. Before 1840, China was economically ‘closed’ to western countries. Trade with other countries was limited to the port of Canton. In Canton, prices and the quantities of goods sold were controlled by a handful of officially sanctioned firms. In part, China limited trade because its economy was relatively strong and diverse and because there was growing concern about the intrusion of European powers in Asia.

Europe’s Trade Deficit With China

Major items that the west desired included tea, porcelain, and silk, but the strong internal Chinese economy did not have as strong a desire for western goods. This began to produce a large trade deficit with China and a drain of silver from the West to the East. The one commodity in demand in China was opium, but its sale for smoking purposes had been prohibited as far back as 1729. Nevertheless, over time, opium continued to make its way into China in larger and larger quantities. By the 1830’s the trade balance had been reversed – China was now experiencing a large trade deficit and drain of silver because of the opium trade – as well as a growing epidemic of addicts.

The Opium Wars

In 1838, China decided to crack down on the opium trade. In Guangzhou, Chinese dealers were arrested and foreign merchants forced to surrender their stocks of opium. The surrendered opium was destroyed and Canton was closed.

This triggered the First Opium War where Britain sent a large army to China in 1840, attacking other towns on the China coast, seizing the port city of Canton, and even sent forces up the Yangtze River. The superiority of British weaponry was obvious and in 1842 the Chinese yielded. This resulted in the Treaty of Nanking which required China to provide indemnification, cede Hong Kong, and open five ports to Britain.

A Second Opium War was triggered in 1856, when a Chinese pirate ship registered under the British flag was seized by the Chinese for piracy. In reprisal British ships bombarded Hong Kong and the Second Opium War was had begun. Again, despite some early successes, China found itself unable to match European firepower. This time, British and French forces marched on Peking. China yielded again, giving up ten more treaty ports, opening up the country to missionaries, and payment of indemnities to both European countries.

In practical terms, China demonstrated an inability to protect its own sovereignty, an inability to protect the welfare of its citizens, and European traders now controlled many key ports. And, as the West forced open China’s markets, Chinese industry faced a Western World with significant advances in industrial ability (e.g. textile production) that helped undermine China’s economy further. China’s economy was in trouble – from indemnity payments, the opium trade, and increasingly competitive nature of foreign goods.

To some degree, these events reflected a government and economy in serious trouble and undoubtedly provided another key reason for the Chinese immigration to America and other countries.

Internal Forces Creating Political Instability in China

Chinese Immigration to America: Political Instability from Internal Forces

A third major set of reasons for Chinese immigration to America was the growing political instability within China that resulted from population growth and the impact of the West. From time to time this instability erupted in rebellions against the Chinese government. Sometimes, the death toll from these rebellions were very high – and was a driving force for the Chinese Diaspora.

Taiping Rebellion

The natural disasters and the intrusion of the West into Chinese affairs helped foment internal problems for China. From 1850 to 1864, China was torn apart by the Taiping Rebellion. Hong Xiuquan, a ‘Protestant visionary,’ lead the rebellion against the Qing Dynasty. The rebellion evolved into a civil war and Hong proved popular among the lower social classes unhappy with the government. British and French forces assisted the Qing government to defeat the rebels. 30 million lives are thought to have been lost in the 14 year conflict.

Nien Rebellion

In 1851, the flooding of the Yellow River triggered an uprising due to the ineffective way that the government responded to the disaster. The uprising was to last 17 years and had a devastating effect on some of the most productive agricultural lands in northern China due to scorched earth military tactics. An estimated 100,000 lives were lost in the rebellion.

Other Rebellions

China was also torn apart by other rebellions springing up around the country. In southwest China the Miao rose up against the government (1855-1872). In Yunnan, Muslims revolted (1855-1861), and another rebellion occurred in the Ili province (1864).

Summary

Reasons for Chinese Immigration to America: Summary

China in the 1800’s was a country in turmoil. The lowest social classes were probably the most affected by China’s problems – floods and droughts, opium addiction, industries in decline from foreign competition, conflict with foreign governments, and internal rebellions were major problems for the average Chinese citizen.

Under these pressures, many chose to leave the country – immigrating to America, Southeast Asia, and other countries in the New World. America was seen as a land of opportunity and hope from the troubles in China and the period of Chinese immigration to America was born.

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